Bacteriophage (phage) are viruses that specifically infect and lyse bacteria. Phage therapy, a method of using whole phage viruses for the treatment of bacterial infectious diseases, was introduced in the 1920s by Felix d'Herelle. Initially, phage therapy was vigorously investigated and numerous studies were undertaken to assess the potential of phage therapy for the treatment of bacterial infection in humans and animals. Early success prompted the development of multiple commercial phage preparations. For example, in 1940 Eli Lilly Company produced 7 phage products for human use, including phage preparations for treating different sicknesses caused by Staphylococcus sp., E. coli and other pathogenic bacteria. These preparations were used, for example, to treat infections that cause abscesses, purulent wounds, vaginitis, acute chronic upper-respiratory tract infections, and mastoid infections.
With the development of antibiotics in the 1940s, however, interest in phage-based therapeutics declined in the Western world. One of the most important factors that contributed to this decline was the lack of standardized testing protocols and methods of production. The failure to develop industry wide standards for the testing of phage therapies interfered with the documentation of study results, leading to a perceived lack of efficacy as well as problems of credibility regarding the value of phage therapy. Further, problems related to the production of phage samples/specimens complicated initial study and research. Diverse stabilizers and preservatives were initially used in attempts to increase the viability of the phage therapeutics. However, because the biology of both the phage and the various stabilizers were poorly understood, many of the ingredients added in an attempt to prolong the viability of phage preparations proved to be either toxic to humans or to negatively impact long term storage. Another problem in phage production related to the purity grade of the commercial preparations of the phage. At the time, phage therapy preparations generally consisted of raw lysates of host bacteria that had been treated with the phage of interest. Thus, many preparations contained what are now recognized to be undesired bacterial components, e.g., endotoxins. Accordingly, adverse events were often associated with the preparations, particularly in patients receiving them intravenously. Nevertheless, in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, where access to antibiotics was limited, the development and use of phage therapy continued jointly with, or in place of, antibiotics.
With the rise of antibiotic resistant strains of many bacteria, however, interest in phage-based therapeutics has returned in the Western world. Even though novel classes of antibiotics may be developed, the prospect that bacteria will eventually develop resistance to the new drugs has intensified the search for non-chemotherapeutic means for controlling, preventing, and treating bacterial infections. There are three main phage-based strategies for using phage therapy in a clinical environment: 1) administering virulent phage; 2) using endolysins or purified lysins encoded by bacteriophage 3) using structural proteins of phage as metabolic inhibitors of key bacterial enzymes, such as enzymes that synthesize peptidoglycan.
There is therefore a need to develop novel bacteriophage and phage products as potential therapeutic and/or prophylactic agents for use in vivo against pathogenic bacteria. In particular, there is a need for bacteriophage capable of lysing nosocomial bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Escherichia coli, and/or Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Because most phage and phage peptides studied to date exhibit activity directed specifically against the species (or subspecies) of bacteria from which they are isolated, the novel phage-based therapies may find particular use in the hospital setting, selectively targeting nosocomial pathogens without affecting the normal surrounding flora.